Anime Effect When Characters Smiling but Inside Is

Abstract

Studies of the use of artificial agents and robots to solicit donations from people have suggested that the design of the agents must consider facial expressions. Still, in that location has not been sufficient evidence to generalize the finding that the emotions conveyed by agents' facial expressions can induce donations. In the present study, nosotros conducted an experiment with an blithe character that has intermediate realism and a unlike advent from those in previous studies to replicate the finding that facial expressions represented by changes in the shapes of the eyes and mouth cause people to become more prosocial and to exam whether we can extend this finding to the emotional expressions presented by changes in the dynamic properties of eyes. In the experiment, participants (\(n=100\)) played a hypothetical dictator game with an avatar that expressed its emotions by changing the shapes of its eyes, eyebrows and mouth and by changing the frequency of eye blinking. The results showed that the emotions expressed by changes in the shape of the facial parts contributed to eliciting a higher donation amount, consistent with previous studies. However, we could not find an additive issue of the emotional expression shown by middle blinking. The results suggest that, regardless of advent, emotional expression is useful in the design of a virtual amanuensis's face, merely it might not exist necessary to consider the dynamic properties of the eyes.

Introduction

Making a donation is a voluntary, nonrewarding activity, such as volunteering 1's fourth dimension or donating financially¹. With the development of the Internet society, the demand for donations via the Internet is increasing^{two, 3}. In a future hybrid society of humans and machines, democratic agents are expected to back up interhuman prosocial behavior⁴. Charitable giving using ICT (information and communications technology) is a promising factor in promoting prosocial beliefs. In recent years, research on agents and robots regarding soliciting donations has been conducted in the fields of HRI (man-robot interaction) and HAI (human being-agent interaction). Some studies have suggested that faces could drive donations. Kim et al.⁵ applied the Hawthorne effect, in which being seen past someone motivates moral behavior, to the design of a robot'southward appearance, showing that anthropomorphic robots with human-like faces promoted greater motivation to donate than robots with a functional appearance. A preliminary experiment in public spaces to induce donations suggested that a robot with glowing eyes and a spherical head was useful in inducing donations^half-dozen. Another written report suggested that the interactivity of the robot increased the amount of donations. Sarabia et al.⁷ conducted an experiment in which a robot with center and oral fissure expressions on a tablet asked pedestrians to donate to Imperial Cancer Enquiry and showed that the interactivity of the robot increased the amount of donations. Wills et al.⁸ conducted an experiment using a robot with a human-similar caput to raise money at a clemency event to support people with ASD (autism spectrum disorder) and their families on a academy campus, and they showed that the robot's contingent behavior increased the amount of coin raised. These studies suggest that we should consider non only the existence of faces just likewise behaviors, such as changes in facial expression, to pattern agents that motivate people to donate. Donations via the Internet are expected to increase in the future, and donations to virtual agents could become widespread in such cases. Notwithstanding, as far as nosotros know, at that place has been no research on donations using virtual agents. In addition, there is no known relationship between emotional expressions through changes in an agent'south facial expressions and donations.

Psychological studies take shown that emotional expressions are a factor in modulating observers' social behavior^9,10,11,12. For example, studies have shown that expressions of joy increase the acceptance of offers in the ultimatum game¹³ and promote cooperation in the prisoner's dilemma game¹⁴, whereas joy in negotiation can atomic number 82 to inferences of leniency and low limits, which can encourage exploitation¹⁵. Expressions of regret after hostile decisions can lead to the restoration of cooperative relationships^{sixteen, 17}. The expression of anger leads others to brand college offers in the ultimatum game¹⁸ and increased concessions in negotiations since information technology signals to the observer that the expresser is tough and has aggressive limits^{15, 16, 19}. On the other mitt, inappropriate expressions of anger tin can cause negative reactions in the observer, leading to negotiation failure²⁰. Emotional expressions can bear upon observer behavior considering they bespeak that the role player'south goal or concerns are satisfied or obstructed^{21, 22}, leading observers to infer these internal states through a process of reverse appraisal^{16, 23}. Some studies have used bogus agents to ostend the effects of emotional expression on prosocial behavior. Terada and Takeuchi²⁴ used a software agent consisting of unproblematic line drawings to show that the prosocial behavior of people changes as the angle of the mouth rises and falls in an ultimatum game. de Melo^{16, 25,26,27} used a virtual avatar that looks like a existent person'south face and confirmed that people became more cooperative when the avatar showed cooperative emotional expressions compared to competitive emotional expressions in the prisoner's dilemma. Kayukawa et al.²⁸ replicated the findings of de Melo et al.²⁵ with the emotional expressions of torso movement and changes in center colour of a existent humanoid robot, NAO. However, we all the same lack the evidence needed to generalize the findings that the emotional expressions of artificial agents are able to induce prosocial behavior, especially donations. One key characteristic that might affect prosociality is the realism or simplicity of the advent of the agents. Therefore, in the present written report, we focused on the faces of animated characters, which are intermediate betwixt simple and real. The animated grapheme used in the present study consisted of regions separated by edges and painted in a limited number of colors, and the texture of the clothes, hair, and skin as well equally the reflection of lite was expressed. In de Melo's^{16, 25,26,27} study, the agent'south confront was shown in a realistic 3D representation with shading. Compared with the amanuensis in de Melo'due south study, our amanuensis has a flat face, flat oral fissure, and flat eyes and does not display realistic shadows and depth representation. Therefore, our agent might be simpler than the agent in de Melo's study. In contrast, the agent in Terada'due south²⁴ study had optics represented by simple true circles without pupils and a mouth represented past an arc. Therefore, our agents, which are portrayed in more detail, might be more than realistic than the agent in Terada and Takeuchi's study. Overall, the amanuensis represented by line drawings used by Terada and Takeuchi might be at the extreme end of simplicity, and the human-like avatars used by de Melo are at the extreme end of realism; thus, nosotros defined the agent used in the nowadays study every bit that with an intermediate appearance betwixt simple and real.

I aspect of the facial expressions of agents that could brand people more prosocial is the dynamic properties of the eyes. Social psychological research has shown that the presence of static eyes makes people more prosocial. Haley and Fessler²⁹ showed that the presence of eye images in the dictator game increased the mean number of donations. Since the work of Haley and Fessler²⁹, at that place have been many studies on the bear upon of eye presence on prosocial behavior. In the written report by Bateson et al.³⁰ examining the effects of middle imagery, participants paid almost three times as much for a drink charge collection box set up up in a university coffee lounge if there was an eye image. Powell et al.³¹ conducted a survey of donation boxes with center images in public places and showed that there was a significant increase in the amount donated in the presence of eyes compared to none. Still, Nettle et al.³² reported conflicting results for the mean increase in donation amounts. Nettle'south meta-analysis revealed that, although there take been studies showing an increase in the amount of donations^{29, 33, 34}, there have also been studies that did not replicate these findings^35,36,37, indicating the need for further studies. I feature that tin be implemented in agents to promote prosociality just that has not been considered in psychological experiments is eye movements. While the above study investigated the impact of static "eye presence" on donation behavior, simply a pocket-sized number of studies take focused on the dynamic backdrop of the eye^38,39,40. Prochazkova et al.³⁸ conducted an fMRI report using trust games and found that pupil changes in interacting partners were mimicked, consequently promoting trust. Ozeki et al.³⁹ showed that tracking a person's decision-making process with the agent's eyes does not increase donation behavior. However, empirical studies with agents have predicted that other dynamic properties of the eyes, such as blinking, increase prosociality. Weibel et al.⁴⁰ manipulated an avatar'southward appearance to investigate how participants perceived the avatar. They investigated the student size, eye blinking frequency, and viewing angle of avatars. The results showed that avatars with less frequent eye blinking and larger eyes were rated equally more attractive and sociable. Furthermore, Maffei and Angrilli⁴¹ showed that high-frequency blinks encoded negative emotions, and low-frequency blinks encoded positive emotions. As described above, studies have confirmed that emotional expressions arm-twist a person's sociability^{24, 25}. Considering these findings together, we hypothesize that, if the frequency of eye blinking encodes emotional states, then information technology elicits a person's prosociality. Therefore, in the nowadays study, we focused on the frequency of eye blinking as one of the dynamic properties of eyes.

In the present study, nosotros investigated whether the eye blinking and facial expressions of an blithe character affect people'southward donation behaviors. We used an experimental paradigm that was proposed by Terada and Takeuchi²⁴ and was used in a replication study conducted by Ozeki et al.³⁹, in which the amanuensis'due south facial expression changes according to the position of a slider bar that indicates the amount of the donation. Participants were given ane minute to decide on the amount of the donation and were allowed to move the slider bar during that time.

Methods

Participants

We adamant the sample size before the start of information collection based on a ability analysis. The \(Thousand^*Power 3.1.half-dozen\) ⁴² analysis (effect size f \(= 0.29\), \(\alpha = 0.05\) (ii-tailed) and \(1-\beta = 0.80\)) suggested an initial target sample size of \(N = 96\). One hundred participants (fourscore male, xx female, \(M_{age}=43.96\), \(SD_{age}=10.25\)) participated in the experiment. Two participants were excluded due to failure to complete the survey, and a final sample size of 98 participants was obtained. All of the participants were recruited through Yahoo! Crowdsourcing (crowds) and received Yahoo! points as a reward only if they answered all of the questions. Recruitment in the cloud was conducted on September 5, 2022. Participants participated in the written report by giving online informed consent. The experiments were undertaken in compliance with national legislation and the Code of Ethical Principles for Medical Enquiry Involving Human Subjects of the Earth Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki).

Materials

We created a web interface with an avatar and a slider bar (Fig. ia). The users of the interface are able to move the slider bar. The facial expressions of the avatar and corporeality of the donation modify co-ordinate to the position of the slider bar. If the slider bar is moved to the left end, the corporeality is 0, and the avatar expresses sadness. If the slider bar is moved to the right end, the amount is the maximum value, and the avatar is happy. In the middle, the amount is the hateful, and the avatar is neutral. The facial expressions modify smoothly in response to the movement of the slider bar. Nosotros used a "Hiyori Momose", which is a Japanese anime-style female figure with big eyes and is included in the software Live2D Cubism from Live2D Inc. Although the amount of the donation changed in increments of fifty yen, the smallest unit, depending on the position of the slider bar, the facial expressions were presented in 21 discrete levels. We divided the positions of the slider bar into 21 steps at equal intervals. Each of the 21 facial expressions shown in Fig. aneb were created as a still prototype file (without blinking) or a movie file (with blinking) by manipulating the parameters of the optics, eyebrows, and rima oris in "Live2D Cubism" (for details, meet Supplementary Fig. S1 and Table S1). The two levels of facial expression were static and irresolute. At the static level, a neutral expression was shown regardless of the position of the slider bar. At the irresolute level, the facial expression was changed according to the position of the slider bar every bit described above.

Information technology is known that eye blinking unremarkably occurs, on boilerplate, one time every 3 south⁴³. To forestall the surface of the eye from drying out, blinking every 30 s to a minute is sufficient. Thus, physiological factors lone cannot explain all centre blinking. Center blinking tin can be classified as voluntary and or involuntary⁴⁴. The former can be controlled by the person, while the latter is an uncontrollable beliefs. Furthermore, the latter can exist classified as reflexive or spontaneous. Spontaneous blinking is a reflex-similar behavior that occurs in the absence of an eliciting stimulus (external factors, such as an incoming projectile). Maffei and Angrilli⁴¹ showed that loftier-frequency blinks encode negative emotions, and low-frequency blinks encode positive emotions. They presented a perceptual chore (with video clips) categorized into six emotional categories and showed that changes in the blinking rate were associated with emotions. The charge per unit of blinking decreased in categories such as joy (three blinks per min) and increased in categories such equally fear and sadness (24 blinks per min). In the present study, the frequency of eye blinking was designed with reference to Maffei's⁴¹ study. The two levels of middle blinking were (1) without blinking and (2) with blinking, and nosotros investigated the effects of eye blinking. In the levels with blinking, the blinking rate was ready to an boilerplate of 16 blinks per minute in the initial land (l:50 allocation). The blinking rate was set to an average of 3 blinks per min when happy (maximum amount) and to an average of 24 blinks per min when sad (minimum corporeality). At the unblinking level, the avatar had either open or closed eyes. In the example without blinking, the images were output every bit still images (PNG format), and in the case with blinking, they were output as animation (APNG format). We created two images with dissimilar blink timings without changing the blink frequency, and we randomly displayed one of them.

Procedure and measures

First, the participants were asked to imagine a situation in which they received a windfall of one thousand yen, and then they were asked to donate to children orphaned by traffic accidents. The participants moved the sliding bar below the avatar to determine the donation amount. To determine the concluding donation amount, the participants had to press a push that corresponds to OK (Fig. ia). Participants received reward points regardless of the total corporeality of their donations. Adjacent, they were asked to complete the items on the Godspeed questionnaire⁴⁵. We used the Godspeed questionnaire, which is a standardized measure to appraise anthropomorphism, animacy, likeability, perceived intelligence, and perceived safe in human robot interaction. Although the questionnaire is intended to appraise interactions with robots, we used it to explore mediated factors that bear upon donation other than the dynamics of optics. The answers to the questionnaire were given on a five-point Likert scale. This procedure was canonical past the Ethics Commission of Gifu University. All of the experimental methods used were approved by the Medical Review Board of the Gifu University Graduate School of Medicine (IRB ID# 2022-092).

Data analysis

The experiment followed a \(two\times 2\) (facial expression [static, changing] \(\times\) centre blinking [with blinking, without blinking]) betwixt-participants factorial design. All of the statistical analysis were performed using SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics 26). For all of the statistical tests, a significance threshold of \(p<0.05\) was adopted. The partial eta squared (\(\eta {_p}^2\)) was used as a measure of the effect size⁴⁶. \(R^2\) was used as a measure of the effect size in multiple regression assay⁴⁶.

Results

Figure iia shows the mean and standard error of the participants' donations. There was no pregnant interaction between blinking and facial expression \((F(one, 94) = 0.ten, p = 0.75, \eta {_p}^2 = 0.001)\). The results revealed that the ratings of the donation were significantly college \(( F(one, 94) = v.69, p = 0.019, \eta {_p}^2 = 0.06)\) in the irresolute facial expression condition \((K = 456.4, SD = 320.0)\) than in the static condition \((M = 312.viii, SD = 274.iv)\), and at that place was no meaning primary effect of blinking \((F(1, 94) = 0.iii, p = 0.59, \eta {_p}^two = 0.003)\). The mean durations spent deciding the corporeality of the offer did not differ across conditions (for details, see Supplementary Table S2).

A 2-way ANOVA was performed for each of the five concepts in the Godspeed questionnaire (anthropomorphism, animacy, likability, condom, and intelligence), and none of them showed a significant difference between the interaction and the main effect. Then, we conducted a multiple regression assay using the stepwise method. A multiple linear regression was performed to predict donations based on the v concepts.

A significant regression equation was plant \(( F(1, 96) = 20.09, p = 0.00 )\) with an \(R^2\) of 0.17. Only animacy was a pregnant predictor of donations. The participants' predicted donations were equal to \(-110.67 + 161.27\) (animacy), where animacy is coded on a 5-bespeak Likert scale. Participant donations increased past 161.27 yen for each increment in animacy (Fig. twob).

Discussion

In the present study, nosotros investigated whether the eye blinking and facial expressions of an avatar affect donation behavior. The results showed that participants donated more to children orphaned by traffic accidents when the avatar's facial expression changed in accordance with their exploratory action before the final decision on the corporeality of the donation, whereas a modify in eye blinking did not bear on the amount of the donation. The results indicated that changes in facial expressions make people to become more than cooperative, in line with previous studies^{16, 24,25,26,27}. Terada and Takeuchi²⁴ showed that the emotional expressions in a line drawing of an bogus agent contributed to increasing the amount of money offered in an ultimatum game. de Melo^{16, 25,26,27} showed that changes in the facial expressions of a virtual agent with a human-similar appearance induced cooperative behavior in humans in the prisoner's dilemma. In the present study, a Japanese anime-way female figure with large optics was used every bit an avatar. Taken together, these studies suggest that, regardless of the differences in the game and the appearance of the avatar, people may become more than cooperative when avatars brandish emotional expressions.

In the present study, we predicted that not only changes in facial expression but also changes in eye blinking promote donation behavior. This prediction was based on an supposition that changes in avatars' blinking rates also code the emotional states of the avatar. This assumption was based on Maffei's⁴¹ findings, in which a participant'south blinking rate increased when he/she was watching video clips that were categorized as sad or frightening and decreased when the video clips were categorized as joyful. We fix the avatar's blink rate to range from 3 times per minute on average when the maximum amount was offered to 24 times per minute on average when the minimum corporeality was offered, and the blinking rate varied according to the position of the slider bar that determined the amount of the donation. However, the results did not support our predictions. There are at least 2 possible reasons why a modify in the blink rate did non affect donation beliefs. Get-go, it is possible that the range of the blink charge per unit was not appropriate for representing emotional states. In present study, we selected the blink rate according to the report of Maffei and Angrilli⁴¹. According to the report conducted past Weibel et al.⁴⁰, avatars that blinked less ofttimes were rated as more attractive within a blinking rate range of 16–60 times per min. The range of three–24 times per min used in the present study is narrower and lower than that of Weibel. It is possible that a wider range of blinking rates could lawmaking the avatar'due south emotional states and induce cooperative behavior in the observer of the avatar. Second, the social furnishings of vitality-mediated blinking may not have been fully realized because the avatar was female. In the present study, the regression analysis of the Godspeed questionnaire showed that animacy mediated the participants' donation behavior. In the Godspeed questionnaire⁴⁵, animacy includes semantic differentials, such as dead/live and brackish/lively. Thus, we can say that animacy is closely related to active free energy, including vitality. Takashima et al.⁴⁷ showed that the vitality perceived from center blinking is stronger for male characters than female characters. These results indicate that our female avatar was not able to express vitality by eye blinking; therefore, information technology did not affect donation behavior. Further studies to confirm the connections among eye blinking, animacy, and emotional states should exist performed. In the present study, we used an agent with large optics, which is a typical characteristic of Japanese animated characters. It is possible that blinking with normal sized eyes, not exaggerated eyes, is able to extract prosocial behavior from people. This possibility should be tested.

On the other manus, the present study replicated the report conducted past Ozeki et al.³⁹, in which the eye movements of a virtual amanuensis had no event on donation beliefs. They showed that the eye movements of a virtual agent post-obit a mouse cursor, which indicated that the amanuensis was watching the conclusion of the participants, did not bear on the donation corporeality³⁹. Together with Ozeki et al.'s study, it is possible to draw the general conclusion that the dynamic backdrop of the eyes of virtual agents do not affect cooperative behavior. All the same, every bit discussed in the previous paragraph, a detailed investigation of the effects of middle dynamics on cooperative behavior should be conducted. Social psychological research has shown that the presence of static optics makes people more prosocial^29,30,31. In the nowadays study, nosotros used the static eyes without blinking as a baseline; therefore, we did non directly investigate the effect of the presence of eyes. Thus, our results are not generalizable to the presence of dynamic eyes.

Although the influence of embodiment was not investigated in the present written report, some predictions could be obtained from the previous literature. Lee et al.⁴⁸ showed that people evaluate a physically embodied social amanuensis more positively than a disembodied social agent and that the feeling of social presence is a key mediating variable for the furnishings of concrete embodiment on the evaluation of a social agent. Bainbridge et al.⁴⁹ showed that people are more than compliant to unusual requests from a physically present robot than a video-displayed robot, suggesting that greater trust is afforded in the case of physical presence. From these studies, we would look that embodied robots would have a more positive social presence and trust than virtual agents; therefore, embodied robots would induce a larger donation than virtual agents. Correia et al.⁵⁰ showed that, when the agents were disembodied, the prosocial agent was rated more positively, and the selfish amanuensis was rated more negatively compared to when they were embodied, suggesting that selfish behavior could exist masked by the presence of the body. This implication suggests that embodied agents are more likely to excerpt profits from people than virtual agents, in turn suggesting that they might be able to extract more donations from people. Connolly et al.⁵¹ showed that emotional reactions presented by a grouping of bystander robots could motivate people to perform prosocial behaviors. The virtual agent in the present written report was not the recipient of the donation, and in this sense, it was a bystander. The results of Connolly et al.⁵¹ and our written report could be generalized to a finding that the beliefs of bystander agents could promote people's prosocial behavior. However, more detailed research must be conducted.

There are some limitations to present study. First, the participants were a culturally homogeneous group, and the gender ratio was not specifically controlled for in this analysis. Culture and gender tin can influence the expression and interpretation of emotional expressions^{39, 52}. It is necessary to use a more than various sample to study the gender and cultural influences in human-agent cooperative beliefs mediated by emotional expressions. Second, a study investigating android-human interactions conducted past Takatsu et al.⁵³ showed that eye contact is associated with glimmer synchronization. Nosotros did non address glimmer synchronization and gazing between the agent and participants. The interactive properties of eye movement crave further investigation. Third, various appearances should exist investigated. In the present study, the virtual agent was a Japanese anime-style female avatar with large eyes. In the written report past Terada et al.⁵⁴, a comparison of characters, such every bit people, dogs, and Buddha images, was performed. The results of the comparison showed that dog-shaped and humanoid avatars are more effective in inducing purchases than Buddhist statues and realistic persons. Comparisons with agents of various types and appearances, such as variations in gender; the presence or absence of animated expressions, such as eye size; and nonhuman characters, such equally animals and robots, are needed for more generalized findings. In the nowadays study, nosotros employed a hypothetical dictator game, in which no real coin is exchanged. Ben-Ner et al.⁵⁵ showed that there is no difference in the corporeality of money offered in the hypothetical dictator game and real dictator game. From this written report, information technology is suggested that people will be likely to donate the same amount of money as in the present report, even when they spend real money. Nevertheless, a study past Xu et al.⁵⁶ indicated that the data processing in the brain regarding risk taking might exist different between real and hypothetical budgetary rewards. Therefore, further report with real money is needed.

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Funding

This study was funded by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Grant Number 16KK0004).

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Affiliations

Graduate School of Engineering, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan

Hisashi Takagi
Faculty of Applied science, Gifu University, i-1 Yanagido, Gifu, 501-1193, Japan

Kazunori Terada

Contributions

H.T.: Study design, information acquisition, information analysis and interpretation. K.T.: Written report design, information analysis and estimation. All authors were involved in paper grooming and approved the final version.

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Correspondence to Hisashi Takagi.

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Takagi, H., Terada, Thousand. The effect of anime graphic symbol's facial expressions and centre blinking on donation behavior. Sci Rep 11, 9146 (2022). https://doi.org/x.1038/s41598-021-87827-2

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Received: 18 Nov 2022
Accepted: 05 April 2022
Published: 28 April 2022
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87827-ii

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